Is College Worth the Costs? Essay

â€Å"Higher education can’t be a luxury, it’s an economic imperative that every family in America should be able to afford.† These are the words spoken on the 2012 campaign trail by president Barack Obama, on the importance of higher education. The cost for a college education is a big conversation in many American homes, as well as in Washington. Families are deciding if they will be able to send their children to college due the high and rising cost of a college degree. Sadly, some of them are choosing to bypass college because they believe that the price is too high. Those who believe college is no longer worth the money think the risk of not finding a job is too high, the amount of debt incurred is ridiculous, and the financial effects on the economy are devastating. Although many of these points are true, college graduates tend to live longer, happier lives, are in better financial standing, and fill the critical demands of skilled professions. College tuition prices have increased rapidly over the past few decades, putting a damper on the idea of attending. In the last decade alone, tuition and room and board prices have increased by 23% at private institutions, and 36% at public ones (Mandel 1). It’s to be expected that since the price of almost of everything has increased the last decade due to the economy, that education would too. But, the hike in the price of college tuition has surpassed inflation, making it difficult for almost all middle class Americans to finance a higher education. The argument, though, is not if families can afford to send their children to college; it’s if they believe that a college education is still worth the high cost it entails. Despite the increases in education costs, higher education is still important, though it may be harder to obtain. The risky job market is a reason students are choosing to bypass college. Along with high tuition prices, the job market for recent graduates is unstable. In the previous 2012 presidential election, a big topic in the live debates were that recent college graduates were unable to find jobs in their field, and if they did, most of the time they were most of the time,  underpaid. This is a scary situation that graduates hope they never have to deal with. New graduates are hoping for a solid job upon graduating from college to pay for their previous four years, and to start their careers and lives. The problem can be summarized by the statement, â€Å"Indeed, 60 percent of the increased college graduate population between 1992 and 2008 ended up in these lower skilled jobs, raising real questions about the desirability of pushing to increase the proportion of Americans attending and graduating from four year colleges and universities† (Duke 3). If graduating from college means spending thousands of dollars to end up with the same job you would have if you didn’t go to college, people are asking, â€Å"what is the point?† More people are starting to realize this, and though students are still attending college, they are thinking hard about the possible risk of not getting the job of their choice after graduating. Sadly, some of them are turning down college because of the worry of not being able to find a job. Of course there are risks with every decision someone makes, and by attending college one is at risk of not finding a open position in their field and having to settle for something less. But there are also risks of not attending college. These risk include the health and well-being of one’s self. Whether or not one finds the right job after graduating, the education and skills acquired still stays throughout their life. This involves learning and practicing healthy habits. Studies have shown that those who earn college degrees are more likely to live happier healthier lives than those who don’t. A report done by the Commission on Heath stated â€Å"that those with more education are likely to live longer, experience better health outcomes, and practice healthy behaviors like exercise, avoiding smoking, and getting regular checkups† (â€Å"The Happy State† 7). Those who are highly educated, have learned the importance of health and wellness, and usually live lives that reflect that. Living a healthier life includes: living longer, seeking more prosperous relationships, and having better community connections. Pew Research on Social and Demographic Trends, found that those who have graduated college are significantly happier than those will a high school diploma or less (â€Å"Are We Happy Yet?†). So although the risk of not finding a job after graduating is very real, one should consider the  risk of not attending school. Unfortunately, people tend to think more about wealth and not health when deciding whether or not to pursue a college degree. Students are accumulating massive debt, causing some to believe a higher education is not worth the large loans they are forced to take out. With higher tuition bills, students are have to take out more loans, leaving them with a large debt to pay after graduating. In 2012, the average loan debt for college graduates was $27,000, which is more than double from five years ago (Ross 7). No one wants to start their careers with an overwhelming amount of loan debt. Therefore, many students are justified in skipping college to jump straight into a job where the money they will be making will not have to go toward paying off school debt. A $27,000 debt upon graduating is not usually a selling point for prospective students deciding if attending college is a smart decision. To help cut down on the amount of loans one has to take out, universities are generous with financial aid. A majority of students earn some sort of financial aid, whether it be academic or need based. These financial grants and scholarships can significantly reduce the amount of money needed to finance a college education. In a study done on Dickinson College, in 2007 the average discount rate for first-years was 30 percent. It was also states that the average at liberal arts colleges is 40 percent (Massa and Parker 94). So, even though the students are forced to take out more loans to pay for college, obtaining financial aid by doing well in high school can reduce the amount needed to pay for college. Along with cutting down on expenses by taking advantage of financial aid awards, earning more money in a lifetime is a smart reason to go to college. College graduates make significantly more money in their lifetime. Though many high school graduates are eager to start making money, investing time and money into a college degree will end up being a bigger pay out in the end. The amount of money earned in a lifetime with a degree exceeds the amount of loans that one owes. According to the research done, â€Å"college graduates earn, on average, about $20,000 a year more than those who  finished their educations at high school. Add that up over a 40-year working life and the total differential is about $800,000[†¦]† (Clark 3). Even though there are rare cases where students end up making a large amount of money without a college degree, like Microsoft founder Bill Gates, the chances of one finding a high paying job without a college education is slim. So even though incurring debt is unattractive, the amount of money earned by obtaining a college degree is worth having to pay back college loans. An effect of borrowing so much money from the government and not finding a decent job, students are not able to make loan payments. This not only hurts the students but the economy as a whole. When graduates are not able to pay back the money they owe, the federal government suffers and loses money. The â€Å"delinquencies† of student loans is now higher than credit cards, mortgages, and all other kinds of consumer loans. The federal Consumer Financial Protection Bureau has stated that student debt has surpassed $1 trillion (Coy 1). As the economy incurs more of this debt, taxpayers are forced to pay more. This issue has greatly impacted not only students and their families, but the older generations. Other generations now believe that students are not able to pay their school debt, convincing them that college is not worth the enormous amount of debt that affects not only the graduates. Although it is true that defaulted loans hurt the economy, the nation still needs skilled employees with college degrees to fill critical professions. These graduates play a big role in the furthering of society. It is no new information most people believe a college education is the first step in becoming successful. Many believe an education opens doors and opportunities in the world to become prosperous. In fact, President Obama has greatly promoted higher education during his terms. He even donated most of his $1.4 million Nobel Peace Prize Award to support those who cannot afford a college education (Beaver 21). America needs higher educated people to make advancements in technology, medicine, and relations. Imagine for a moment that everyone decided that a college education was not worth it. Yes, the economy would not acquire as much debt, but who would continue to make  advancements in science, treat the sick, or deal with foreign nations? Nations around the world are competing with the United States academically; as a result of this, countries like China, are making strides economically and technologically, competing with the U.S. as the worlds largest super power. A economic crisis like the one the United States is in now requires highly skilled professionals and leaders to make smart and effective decisions to better the country. These professionals are produced through higher education and knowledge. Without college graduates, there is no hope for bettering society. So, is college worth the costs? Many skeptical people believe that today it isn’t. Because of the risky job market, where recent college graduates are not able to find a job, or at least one in their field of study, students have chosen to skip college. Also, students are finding themselves struggling to afford the high tuition prices of most universities. The high tuition bills force students to rely on loans to pay for a degree, and when they cannot find jobs to pay back those loans, they default on those loans hurting themselves and the economy. These reasons have caused families to rethink attending college, and although they are legitimate reasons, there are still important reasons as to why college is worth the investment. It has been shown that those with a college education live happier, healthier lives. Graduates make significantly more money in a lifetime and are more financially stable. Lastly, people with higher education are essential for the country. Their knowledge makes the advancements needed to maintain a prosperous nation. Health, money, and social progression is why investment of a college education is worth the cost, even if the price is high. Works Cited Beaver, William. â€Å"Do We Need More College Graduates?.† Society 47.4 (2010): 308-311. Academic Search Complete. Web. 4 Nov. 2013. Clark, Kim. â€Å"How Much Is That College Degree Really Worth?† US News. U.S.News & World Report, 30 Oct. 2008. Web. 27 Oct. 2013. â€Å"College Grads Happier.†Pew Social Demographic Trends RSS. Pew Research Center, 3 Nov. 2010. Web. 02 Dec. 2013. Coy, Peter. â€Å"The Needless Tragedy Of Student Loan Defaults.† Businessweek.Com (2012): 3. Business Source Complete. Web. 4 Nov. 2013. Duke, Selwyn. â€Å"DIPLOMA DISASTER? (Cover Story).† New American (08856540) 29.15 (2013): 10-15. Academic Search Complete. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. Mandel, Michael. â€Å"College: Rising Costs, Diminishing Returns.† Businessweek 4148 (2009): 20. Business Source Complete. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. Massa, Robert J., and Annette S. Parker. â€Å"Fixing the Net Tuition Revenue Dilemma: The Dickinson College Story.†Strategic Financial Challenges for Higher Education: How to Achieve Quality, Accountability, and Innovation. By Donna Klinger and Lucie Lapovsky. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2008. 93-94. Print. Ross, Andrew. â€Å"Mortgaging The Future: Student Debt In The Age Of Austerity.† New Labor Forum (Murphy Institute) 22.1 (2013): 23-28. Business Source Complete. Web. 31 Oct. 2013. â€Å"The Happy State of College Graduates.†-. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2013.

Analysis of “Death of a Salesman” opening stage directions Essay

Arthur Miller’s ‘Death of a Salesman’ (1949) opens with an extensive description of the Loman house. Miller uses extremely precise and detailed stage directions, including prop placement, sound and lighting, giving heavy significance to each of these elements and painting an unchangeable picture to ensure that it is preserved in every interpretation of his work. Throughout the opening stage directions of Act 1, despite the structure and tone being very factual, composed of short, clear sentences, Miller hints at underlying themes and messages through a range of stylistic devices, preparing the audience for the play, and setting the scene. As the play is set in Brooklyn, New York some years after the great depression, many references are made already at this early stage to idealism and the American dream; the desperate and yearning vision of many Americans at that time of a better life. This permeating theme becomes apparent formerly even to the introduction of the characters, as the mere scenery and props act as symbolic elements, which reflect this motif. Miller however subliminally makes it evident that this dream is purely an illusion, through emblematic phrases in his stage directions such as ‘rising out of reality’ and physical representations, for instance the broken boundaries where ‘characters enter or leave a room by stepping through a wall onto the forestage’ which create an aura of delusion. The first stage directions include a melody played on a flute, ‘telling of grass and trees and the horizon’. This natural imagery encompassing three physical elements accompanied by the soft and harmonious sound, sets a serene tone which is then highly juxtaposed with the following depiction of the house and it’s neighborhood, featured with darkness and hostility. This heavy contrast may be symbolic of the conflict between the dreams to which the individual aspires and the actual harshness of society’s reality. The description of the surrounding cluster of apartment blocks seems almost to have a greater prominence than the house itself, as this is the first thing the audience ‘becomes aware of’. The tall and ‘angular’ silhouette of Manhattan that lies in the backdrop has expressionistic features and  surrounds the Loman house in a way that suggests some metaphorical form of oppression or confinement. The ‘glow of orange’ that falls upon the ‘fragile-seeming’ house is personified as ‘angry’, perhaps reflecting the hostile times in which the play is set. This enclosing and intimidating hostility is in part what makes the home appear so fragile, a fragility that may represent weakness in family bonds or equally, weakness in he who represents the house, condemning him immediately to the role of a tragic protagonist. Willy clings to his dreams just as ‘an air of the dream clings to the place’. This idea becomes present again in the description of Linda’s feelings towards her husband and his traits. ‘his massive dreams’ are the source of his tragic nature, dreams that he shares with the rest of society, but that for him become an unhealthy obsession. Willy is cursed with the incessant desire to pursue his dreams ‘to their end’ and these words forebode a fate that unfolds as a result of this fixation. Overall the opening of this play provides the audience with a sense of the themes that will permeate throughout, by cleverly using stage schemes and elements that insinuate profounder significance of what is to come.

Global aging Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Global aging - Essay Example Around 60% of these elderly people live in developing countries, and this figure will rise to 80%. The number of people over 80 will increase from 86 million in 2005 to 394 million in 2050 (United Nations, 2005). The oldest (85 and older) are the quickest growing portion of the population in many countries globally. Also, the oldest old are more likely to live in developed countries. The elderly population is also growing in many developed and developing countries. Almost half of the world’s elderly population lives in China, India, the United States, and former Soviet Union countries. The number of elderly people living alone varies widely. In developed countries, percentages of elderly people living alone range from 9% in Japan to a high 40% in Sweden. In developing countries, such as China, 3% of the elderly live alone, in South Korea 2%, and Pakistan 1%. Today, population aging is a major issue mainly in the industrialized nations of Europe, Asia, and North America. These nations have experienced intense public debate over elder-related issues such as social security costs and health care provisions. In sync with Tischler’s article, Blahous III agrees that areas such as pensions, taxation, etc. will be affected. Blahous III explores how challenged present policy is when it comes to dealing with the issue of global aging. According to him, social security inmost countries are ill-equipped to survive the effects of a global aging population. This lack of preparedness is most likely to impose excessive tax burdens1. In accordance with Tischler’s article, Ahearn (2002) asserts that social security benefits will decrease in order to make pension plans more practical. Similar to Blahous’s view that social policy will be challenged, Ahearn also holds that a global aging population means that there will be need to

Human Resource Management in Context Assignment - 1

Human Resource Management in Context - Assignment Example The significance of understanding the business environment in promoting employee retention, career advancement and job security has been highlighted. The advantages and practical difficulties with doing this as well as ways of overcoming these difficulties have been discussed, emphasizing on PESTEL analysis as a significant strategy that can assist HR professionals to understand the external business environment. 2.0 Introduction Human resource management is concerned with the advancement of human capital through a tactical and articulate approach to the management of workers, who are the most treasured assets that are considered to be the underpinning element in the accomplishment of the organizational goals. It involves empowering people to utilize their potential to the maximum in line with the organizational objectives. The activities in strategic human resource management entail measures for improving the workplace environment, recruitment, performance and reward management amon g other activities that enhance the productivity of employees. Businesses maintain competitiveness through inventiveness and uniqueness in their operations. In the contemporary operating environment they have been compelled to maintain continuous changes to cope with the political, economic, social and technological needs. This development has made it necessary for human resource professionals to assume the role of business partners. As such, they need to be aware of changes and development in the business environment in order to support the business. 3.0 Significance of Understanding the Business Environment 3.0.1 Changing Technology The constantly changing technological landscape requires regular upgrading of skills to ensure the business maintains a competent workforce. It is important for HR professionals to understand the technological changes and their impact on employee motivation and productivity. Employees need to be kept informed regarding the new developments in technolog y for them to be capable of effectively utilizing the emergent technology (Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000). Increased innovations in information technology have led human resource managers to encourage workers to acquire computer skills for greater productivity. It is important for HR professionals to encourage leaning in the work place. This is accomplished through training and development, especially when an organization operates in a dynamic environment where technological advancements are constantly occurring. The faster the organization grows, the more training it requires for employees to cope with the rapidly changing operating environment (William, 2004). Training and development allows employees to acquire essential knowledge that is important in the accomplishment of tasks in the workplace. The human resource management’s role is to ensure that employees are exposed to training opportunities. It is therefore important to maintain focused on any opportunities for employees to learn that may arise in the operating environment (Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000). The skills acquired from this kind of training allow the employees to understand the operating environment better and to be aware of the business goals as well as the practices that can lead to their successful accomplishment. Employees gain confidence in undertaking their tasks when they realize

Historical analysis of football contracts Essay

Historical analysis of football contracts - Essay Example The relationship between players and clubs changed fundamentally through the years. Contemporary football is caught between two very powerful concepts: the freedom of movement of players on the one side and contractual stability on the other. The international governing body FIFA attempts to provide a universal guideline on how to deal with contractual stability and international mobility. A it was shown in this research project, freedom of movement is the consequence of many social, cultural and, not at last, political developments which have caused an increase in international mobility of players in the recent past. The focus of this article centered on playing contract conditions, analysis of power determinants in the football labor market. The football labor market, as this paper will demonstrate, is a site for power contestation between football authorities and players and the ‘transformation of circumstances’ with regard to playing contract conditions throughout the history of the game is central to this paper. The paper uses agency-structure as a framework and consequently adopts the view that football players perform their labor in an occupational workplace that is governed by football’s authorities (that is, the game’s rules, governing bodies, regulating authorities and clubs). In this sense, the players are considered to be the individual agents (agency)while the football authorities are the structure whilst the power battle between the players and authorities – as part of agency-structure – regarding playing contract conditions over time is the f ocal point of this paper.

Motion against Provision of Aid to Developing Nations Coursework

Motion against Provision of Aid to Developing Nations - Coursework Example They will not develop the resources they have because they know they will get aid when they need it. Secondly, most of the aid given does not accomplish its task. It is lost in corrupt deals. Governments swindle the money meant for development of infrastructure and put it into different uses other than the expected ones (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009:350). The goal is to have the money reach the poor, but in most instances, the poor remain poorer. Thirdly, the countries giving aid will place the recipient countries under too much pressure. These countries have to change their political and economic policies to suit the needs of their donating countries, and this shows that the recipient country owes the donating country a favor (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009:351). Fourthly, the donating countries may have it as a condition that foreign companies need to manage the funds given, denying the hosts a chance to make their decisions. Since the developing nation needs the money, it is very easy to have them agree to such terms, but it will hurt its economy owing to the amount sent abroad rather than invested in the country (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009:352). The fifth point is that the amount of money sent or the form of aid given could benefit large-scale projects while the common citizen who can only handle the smaller projects remains a spectator. The goal is to develop the lowest earning person to become self-sufficient, but the use of aid denies them this chance (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009:350).

Answers for 5 discussion questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Answers for 5 discussion questions - Essay Example Jackson’s â€Å"The Haunting of Hill House† is a book whose plot revolves round haunting sessions in a hill house. â€Å"Eleanor did not sleep during the afternoon, although she would have liked to; instead, she lay on Theodoras bed in the green room and watched Theodora do her nails, chatting lazily, unwilling to let herself perceive that she had followed Theodora into the green room because she had not dared to be alone† (pg 40). This quote portrays horror in the hill house as everybody feels fear yet they refuse to admit. Horror in the hill house make characters incline to believe in redemption from religion. â€Å"Hell House† depicts haunting sessions and doom that befalls non-believers. This movie is unethical as a method of persuasion as it instills fear in characters leaving them with no other option but believe in religion. Cults and organizations exhibit pledge to their leaders regarding organizational beliefs, ideas and obligations. Leaders of cults and organizations command actions of members and resistance to these actions is unacceptable. Cults and organization serve to acquire financial benefits. Encouraging team spirit within cults and organizations forms a unique feature. However, cults differ from organizations in various aspects. Actions of leaders of organization are subject to review by relevant authorities marred with such duties. Cults are not answerable to any authorities and their activities are non-religious. Unlike cults, organizations condemn members from cutting links with their families or friends. Organizations are not necessarily formed on religious beliefs and ideologies. "It is also possible that part of our test of faith is our loving of this world, even our flesh body, to the extent to be willing to leave it without any proof of the Next Levels existence" (Davis pp. 123). The intriguing aspect of Davis’s analysis is the

Dementia ,sexaula relationships in restidental care homes for the Essay

Dementia ,sexaula relationships in restidental care homes for the eldery - Essay Example The role of social and ethical expectations laid down by the society is a safety net in many instances, but can also be akin to thinking in the box. Various issues in the society have been so marred by negative thinking and opinionated views that now merely discussing them is considered taboo. This may have helped keep some negative issues at bay, but it does not eliminate them, and the importance of looking into the various issues that are affected negatively by such â€Å"norms† is an essential need in any civilized society (Sewell, 2001, p. 1). Issues such as sexuality are considered a very private and personal issue, which is frowned upon should it be discussed more openly. While ethical approach and mannerisms may be an adequate explanation to avoid discussion in these topics, it on the other hand has led to many myths, confusions, and negative ideas about the various issues that pertain to sexuality. This approach towards sexuality and its various issues is very limiting and negative in its effect, for sexuality is among the four primary drives of the human. This drive remains through out life, and the negative reaction displayed against an elder person showing these emotions is another social stigma that has complicated matters greatly (Sewell, 2001, p. 1). More than 90% cases of dementia exhibit behavior problems including sexual inappropriate behavior in the course of their illnesses. Dementia has become more prevalent in the recent years (Srinivasan and Weinberg, 2001, p. 20). Almost 5% of the patients develop dementia in the ages 65-69 years of age, where as 20% of the patients develop dementia in ages above 85 (Srinivasan and Weinberg, 2001, p. 20). Despite the growing prevalence of dementia, there is still very little awareness in the general population about its challenges and issues, and how to respond to them. Even if dementia is not present, the population is anaware

Critical Review of Nokia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Critical Review of Nokia - Essay Example From this paper it is clear that decreasing the dependency ratios of the elderly people within the rural municipalities, the project also aims to facilitate in the delivery of better health services and assuring a sustained economic growth. The project, which includes both a literature review on the issue, and an evaluation of the present conditions through discussions, questionnaires, and interviews, will help us to understand the subject matter better by giving us a clear insight into the Finnish health care system, and the use of the technological innovations within this sector. The research question, suitably framed, takes into account the elderly population and the medical services in rural Finland, examines the entire field of medicine and innovative technology. The basic motivation behind this project is the viability of the Health book, is an â€Å"easy to use online medical networking service aimed at senior citizens, communities, hospitals and doctors†. The elderly population living within rural communities will benefit from this online health service by getting direct access to medical and social support without having to go out of their houses. The hypotheses that says ‘quality performing telecommunication connections and broadband accessibility make it possible for people in rural areas to live and work despite long distances’   is measurable both qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitatively the data can be collected through theoretical studies of books, journals, and articles on the relationship between improved health ca re facilities, and innovative technologies and communications.  

Artificial Intelligence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Artificial Intelligence - Essay Example Alan Turing, then, modified the ‘imitation game’ and put a man or woman, and a computer in another separate room. The judge’s job was to decide who is a man or machine among the two contestants. Based on the second version of the experiment, Turing argued that if the ‘judge’ can pick a computer or a human using his mind, then, the computer is a simulation of a human and hence it is intelligent. The Turing has been modified further in that the imitation game has changed where there is a single contestant, a human or a computer. The judge’s job in this test is to decide whether the single contestant is a human or a machine (Moor 143).  Alan Turing proposes that the definition of intelligence can be passed to machines (computers) in that he believes that computers can be programmed to act like humans. He advocates for the question and answer method because it includes the human behaviour of talking by responding to queries. In his 1951 paper, Tu ring writes that â€Å"in fifty years’ time, computers can be programmed to play the imitation game such that any average interrogator (judge) will have less than 70% chance of identifying the correct contestant after asking questions for five minutes.† The Turing test supports the fact that if a human being is replaced by a computer and the game’s results remain unaffected, then, the machine would be equally intelligent as a human and capable of thought (Moor 144).  Turing supports his arguments by stating that machines are capable of thought if only they cannot be distinguished.

Time of the Butterflies Essay Example for Free

Time of the Butterflies Essay Back in the present (1994), Dede considers how Fela, their longtime servant, thinks that she is possessed by the spirits of the dead Mirabal sisters. She had accidentally come across Felas shrine to the girls one Friday in the shed behind the house. She had ordered Fela to move the shrine, but Minou scolded her for being intolerant. Minou often stops at the shrine, which is now down the street. She asks Dede where Lio Morales now lives, since Minerva has asked her to deliver a message to him—just to say hello, and to state how much she thinks of him. When the interview woman presses on, asking Dede, When did all the problems start? Dede begins to speak about Lio Morales. She met him one hot and humid afternoon while she was organizing her fathers shop with Minerva. They are finishing up before they head to Tio Pepes to play volleyball with their friends. Dede knows that her cousin Jaimito, on whom she has started to have a crush (even though he once annoyed her), will be there. Mario, one of their distributors, arrives with Lio, and introduces him as his cousin. He knows Elsa Sanchez and Sinita Perozo from the university. When Dede mentions that they are committed to playing volleyball, Minerva invites Mario and Lio. Minerva gets their fathers permission, and the girls go to Tio Pepes with Mario and Lio.A few weeks later, Lio is still joining them for volleyball. Jaimito suggests that the girls come to play. As they take off their shoes and begin to assign positions, Dede notices that Minerva and Lio are missing. She is unsure if it is actually an accident, but she hits the ball into the hedges, startling the hiding couple. Once Lio emerges from the hedges, Jaimito starts a fight with him, and the game ends in awkwardness. Lio and Jaimito both begin to come to the Mirabals house more and more. When Maria Teresa accidentally reads aloud to Mama a newspaper article that reveals that Lio is a communist, a subversive, Mama becomes upset that she has been letting him spend time at their home. But Minerva continues to see him on double dates with Jaimito and Dede. Still, Minerva refuses to admit that she is in love with Lio. When Dede asks him how he wants to accomplish his revolutionary goals, Lio cannot give her the direct answer she wants. Dede becomes more and more nervous as Lios name continues to appear in the newspapers, and she and Minerva lie about spending time with him. Then Lio announces that hell be going into exile with some of his comrades. One night, after a gathering of the Dominican party in San Francisco, Jaimito asks Minerva if Lio has invited her to go into exile with him, and she says that he has not. Jaimito tells them that the police were looking for Lio at his house and that he was taken down to the station for questioning. He told them that Lio had given him girlie magazines to get them off his back. Minerva leaves, and Dede and Jaimito begin to kiss. Jaimito tells her there is something he wants her to see out back. They get into Papas car, and he slips a ring on her finger, proposing. But they are surprised by Lios cough from the backseat—he has been hiding there. Jaimito is furious that he would endanger the Mirabals, but Lio gives Dede a letter to deliver to Minerva. As Dede walks Jaimito to his car, she agrees to marry him. Alone, Dede decides not to tell Minerva that Lio is hiding in the backseat of Papas car. She goes into her bedroom and opens the letter Lio asked her to deliver to Minerva. In it, he invites her to go into exile with him. Dede decides that she will not expose her sister to that danger, so she burns the letter in the lamp. Analysis This chapter reveals the tense relationship between Dede and Minerva. Their personalities are at odds: Minerva is full of questions and mischief, while Dede is much more organized and chooses to smile and dismiss things without stirring up trouble. But it is Lio who brings out Dedes resentment toward her sister. Though she loves Jaimito, Dede is jealous of Lios interest in Minerva. She sees them as a glamorous couple doing exciting things, while she and Jaimito are merely expected to end up together. She exposes them hiding in the bushes together and even burns the letter from Lio that was intended for her sister. Dede tells herself it is to protect Minerva, but her action is clearly also out of jealousy that her sister might get involved in such a daring adventure with Lio. As the narrator, Dede uses exclamations often, characterizing herself as someone whose placid, smiling demeanor is interrupted by bursts of emotion. When she considers her task of being the grande dame of the bea utiful, terrible past by relating her familys history to the woman interviewer, she exclaims, But it is an impossible task, impossible! In talking about her husband, she wonders, But who could control Jaimito, only son of his doting mother, unquestioned boss of his five sisters!The metaphors of knotted string and captivation carry through this chapter, as Dede describes herself getting caught up in the twists and turns of life. When Lio teases her for going to play volleyball in a dress, Suddenly, Dede feels foolish, caught in her frivolity as if she were a kitten knotted in yarn. As Dede reads articles in the paper about how people are getting arrested, Dedes courage unraveled like a row of stitches not finished with a good, sturdy knot. Being sown up can be for protection or for captivation. She does not think Lio has a plan, and she becomes afraid to be involved with him. The diction that Dede uses as narrator recounting the events of the past ties Minerva to death. After Maria Teresa reads to Chea Mirabel the article calling Lio a communist, Chea calls for Minerva, and From her bedroom, the book she was reading still in hand, appeared the death of them all. Though the phrase to be the death of can be used lightly to mean someone is a handful, in this case, Minerva actually is the death of them all. When Lio announces that he is going to leave to go into exile with his comrades, Minerva was deathly quiet. It is clear that Dede in some way blames Minerva for getting the family involved in politics and thus bringing about her own death and that of her sisters. There is a hint of foreshadowing, too, at the end of the chapter, when Dede considers Jaimitos marriage proposal. She is not surprised by it because she has always seen it as inevitable that she would marry Jaimito. There was no question was there? but that they would spend the rest of their lives together. Notably, the question that interrupts her thought is both in the young Dedes mind and in the memory of the older Dede in 1994, remembering how she felt and how she might have suspected that she and Jaimito would end up getting a divorce. Even when she thinks of Jaimito fondly, as he begins to propose, Dede from the present cannot help but check the enthusiasm she felt at the time: Her spoiled, funny, fun-loving man. Oh, what a peck of trouble she was in for. What do you want, Minerva Mirabal? Summer Minerva has been living at home for a few years, and rumors are starting about her being a lesbian. She also realizes that something is amiss between Mama and Papa. She is bored and jealous of Elsa and Sinita, who are studying in the capital. Out on drives, she begins to notice her fathers Ford always parked in front of the same campesino family home. Four girls run out to the road, and she sees that they have Mirabal eyes. She realizes that Enrique Mirabal is their father and that they are her half-sisters.Since Lio went away, Minerva has been having headaches and bad asthma. One afternoon she goes into her fathers armoire and goes through the pockets of his clothes. She finds four letters addressed to her from Lio, and she reads them. He refers to his proposal that she leave the country with him, which of course Minerva knows nothing about. Furious, she drives the Jeep over to the campesino house where she knows she will find her fathers Ford. He comes out and asks her what she wants, but she just speeds away. When Papa gets home that night, he leads Minerva outside into the garden, where he slaps her. But when he says she owes him respect, she tells him he has lost it.Minerva has also found an invitation to one of Trujillos private parties in her fathers coat pocket; it specifically mentions that Minerva should attend. Mama is scared for Minervas safety, so she insists that Pedrito, Patria, Dede, and Jaimito go along, too. Before the party, Papa sends the Ford to the shop, so Minerva drives him to his medical appointments in San Francisco. One day, he means to stop by the house he has bought for his ex-mistress and his other children after the appointment, and Minerva insists she be allowed to go along to meet them. She even meets Carmen, their mother, with whom Papa says he is no longer involved. Discovery Day Dance, October 12 The family arrives at the party an hour late, having gotten lost. But Trujillo is late, too, as they learn from Manuel de Moya, his secretary of state. A table is reserved for the Mirabals, but Don Manuel tells Minerva she is going to sit with Trujillo. Finally El Jefe arrives, but he does not sit with Minerva; instead, she is entertained by Manuel de Moya. It is about to rain, but the tables are pushed back for dancing. When Don Manuel asks Minerva to dance, she says she has a headache and cannot. Patria brings her calmantes before Don Manuel returns with some for her as well. Finally, Minerva agrees to dance with him.Soon, Trujillo becomes her partner. He flirts with her, and she tells him she wants to study in the capital to be a lawyer. But when he implies that he would like to conquer her, she says she is not for conquest. He tells her the university is no place for women, mentioning the communists and agitators, implying they have been caught. By mistake, Minerva blurts out, Virgilio Morales? She must backtrack and pretend she does not know Lio, and Trujillo believes her. When he pulls her inappropriately close, thrusting at her in a vulgar way, she slaps his face.The rain begins immediately, and the party moves quickly inside. The Mirabals rush off, but Minerva forgets her purse. She and Patria cannot find it anywhere, and they assume that someone already brought it inside and that it will be mailed to them. But on the ride home, Minerva realizes that she has put the letters from Lio in the pocket of the lining. Rainy Spell The Mirabal family left the party before Trujillo did, which is against the law. Two guardias arrive at their house and say that Governor de la Maza wants to see Enrique Mirabal and Minerva immediately, but Mama says, If she goes, I go. At the governors palace, Papa is sent to the capital for questioning. He whispers to Minerva that she is to take money to the illegitimate family in San Francisco every two weeks until he is back. Minerva does so, but she cannot find the house in the rain. She sees Margarita, the oldest daughter, and asks her to lead her to her mothers house. Once there, Minerva gives Carmen the money and asks if she can enroll the daughters in school.Minerva and Chea return to the capital to petition for Papas release. They get a room at a hotel. At the Office of Missing Persons, Minerva meets a man who has named all his sons Pablo Antonio so that if one of them is captured, he can swear he is not the son they are looking for. But the mans case takes so long that there is not time to hear the Mirabals.The next morning they are woken at the hotel and taken to the National Police Headquarters for questioning, where Minerva is interrogated about Lio by General Federico Fiallo and Don Anselmo Paulino. She admits that she lied to El Jefe about not knowing Lio, but she says it was because she was afraid of displeasing him. She says she is no longer in communication with Lio. Manuel de Moya enters and suggests that a private conference with El Jefe would be the quickest, most effective way to end all this nonsense. He means, of course, that Minerva should sleep with Trujillo, but she insists that her father and mother come along to the meeting. Three weeks later, they see Trujillo. Papa has just been released, but he has gone mad due to his imprisonment. In Trujillos office, it is revealed that Tio Chiche, one of Trujillos friends, is related to Chea Mirabal. He is a gambler and Mama doesnt like him very much, but she jumps on this connection in order to appeal to Trujillo. Minerva notices a set of dice on Trujillos desk, and she realizes that they are loaded. She makes a bet with him: they will roll the dice, and if she wins, she can go to law school, but if he wins, he gets to sleep with her. Minerva knows to use the heavier set of dice, and of course she wins, to Trujillos annoyance. Minerva, Chea, and Enrique Mirabal drive home in the rain. Analysis As Minerva asks herself what she wants, she uses the conceit of that princess put to sleep in the fairy tale. It is Lio who woke her up when she met him: The givens, all Id been taught, fell away like so many covers when you sit up in bed. This conceit is ironic, since Minerva is anything but the stereotypical woman of a fairy tale, waiting for a man to come and wake her up so her life can begin. In actuality, Minerva speaks out for womens rights and takes matters into her own hands.Imagery of woven thread appears again in this chapter, as Minerva struggles with decisions about where her life should go: Back and forth my mind went, weaving a yes by night and unraveling it by day to a no. The dilemma is whether she loves Lio; she cannot decide. The decision is made for her when he decides to seek asylum. The imagery appears again when Mama clings to her connection of Tio Chiche (a friend of Trujillos) and Papa in his madness points out that Chiche cheats too much. I wont play with him . As a result, Mamas eyes are boring a hole in Papa. Our one lifeline in this stormy sea and Papa is cutting the rope shes been playing out.Violent diction appears once again in this chapter, as it has throughout the novel. As Enrique Mirabal leads Minerva down the driveway into the garden, The moon was a thin, bright machete cutting its way through patches of clouds. This metaphor is continued when Minerva describes its light as sharp, and it foreshadows the slap she is about to receive from her father.The theme of Trujillo being conflated with God comes out in the paper fans that the girls received at the party they went to, thrown by Trujillo. The fans had the Virgencita on one side and Trujillo on the other. The combination bothers Minerva: Sometimes it was El Jefes probing eyes, sometimes it was the Virgins pretty face I couldnt stand to look at.The events of the party are mirrored by the weathers progression to a rain storm. When they arrive at the party, there is a strong breeze, announcing rain. When Minerva mentions Lios name, suspicion clouds the gaze of Trujillos face, and when she refuses to dance with Manuel de Moya initially, a cloud of annoyance crosses his face. When Minerva slaps Trujillo, it is like the clap of thunder that begins the storm: and then the rain comes down hard, slapping sheets of it. In the midst of the storm, her family is the ship that steers her to safety: Dede and Patria are turning in all directions like lookouts on the mast of a ship. Completing the conceit, Minerva steals a little decorative ship as a souvenir for Maria Teresa, who was too young to attend the party. As they escape in the rain, it looks as though the ship is being steered safely through the storm. But there are two problems. Once Minerva realizes she has left the letters from Lio in the forgotten purse, all hope is lost. She feels something hard against her leg and reaches down to discover the little caravel sunk in the folds of my damp dress. And the family has committed a crime by leaving the party before Trujillo. If Trujillo is the captain of a doomed autocratic ship, protocol states that the captain is to leave last; but at this point the regime is still strong and can arbitrarily declare that the nation’s captain must be allowed to leave first. The resistance still has a long way to go. Chapter 7 Maria Teresa writes this chapter in her new journal, another gift from Minerva. Enrique Mirabal has passed away, and Maria Teresa is outraged that Carmen and her four daughters attended the funeral. Maria Teresa is struggling with her fathers death. She had a troubling dream in which she found her wedding dress inside her fathers coffin. She has the same dream again in February, but this time Manolo, Minervas husband-to-be, is in the coffin. In October, while she is a student at the university, she again has the dream, but now it is Armando Grullon, one of Minervas friends, in the coffin.She has also developed crushes on both her cousins, Raul and Berto, and she asksFela to help her determine which of the brothers she will marry. She kisses Berto on the lips on January 1 but is confronted about it by Raul on January 8. These events cause her to become fed up with both of them. Meanwhile, Tio Chiche has suggested that Mama write a letter toTrujillo affirming their loyalty to his regim e. Maria Teresa is helping her write it, just as she helped Minerva with her speech at the Salcedo Civic Hall in which she praised Trujillo (earning permission to go to law school). But Fela has helped her put a curse on the letter. Minerva has fallen in love with a man at law school named Manolo, but he is engaged to someone else. She comes to visit in January, demonstrably in a revolutionary mindset, reciting Fidel Castros words that she has heard on illegal radio stations. On Valentines Day, she visits again, this time bringing Manolo along. Maria Teresa has cooked dinner and is completely taken with Manolo. By March, however, she becomes suspicious since he met Minerva while he was engaged to someone else.Maria Teresa has arranged to live with Dede and Jaimito and their sons, Jaime Enriqueand Jaime Rafael, in San Francisco during the week, and come home to Mamas house on the weekends. Unfortunately, their ice cream business is failing, and soon they decide to move back to Mamas house and help run Papas store. On July 3, Maria Teresa graduates. Tia Flor bakes a cake for the party. Tia Flor also confronts her and says that she needs to choose between her two sons, Raul and Berto. Maria Teresa responds that she wants neither one. Meanwhile, the familys yardboy, Prieto, has betrayed them by reporting to Security everything they have done. They cannot fire him, however, since it would look suspicious.In September, Maria Teresa goes to join Minerva at the university in the capital, and they are roommates. While Minerva encourages Maria Teresa to stick with law, the younger sister eventually decides to switch to Philosophy and Letters. She meets one of Minervas and Manolos friends, Armando Grullon, who tries to kiss her.Now it is 1955, and Minerva is getting married in the rain. She moves in with Manolo, and by December 11 she is pregnant. By April 1956, Maria Teresa has started using her diary as an all-purpose supply book. She is attempting to write a speech to give as Miss University, and Minerva is advising her how much and when to mention Trujillo. Minerva has given birth to Minou and is helping her younger sister write the speech.Now it is July 1957, and Maria Teresa writes that Minerva is moving to Monte Cristi with Manolo after graduation. Trujillo, however, plays a terrible trick on Minerva by not actually granting her a license to practice law; her diploma is useless. Maria Teresa helps Minerva set up her new home in Monte Cristi, and it comes out that Manolo is cheating on Minerva with another woman. By August, though, the couple is on the mend, and Minerva credits Maria Teresa with bringing them back together.In her entry of September 28, 1957, Maria Teresa reports that she accidentally intercepted a delivery of guns from Leandro (codename Palomino) to the house. Manolo and Minerva explain about the national underground thats forming, and Maria Teresa joins them. Maria Teresa begins to fall in love with Leandro. Maria Teresa becomes a hub of a revolutionary cell, living with Sonia and storing deliveries in the munitions room. While Sonia is away in La Romana, Leandro comes over and says that he is going to stay with Maria Teresa to protect her. Maria Teresa ends up marrying Leandro on Valentines Day, 1958. Analysis Because of the diary style of Maria Teresas narration, often the reader must figure out what is being referred to because of the lack of specifics. For example, in the December 15 entry, Maria Teresa writes, I cant believe she came to the funeral mass with her girls without saying who she is. It is as if she is in such an upset state of mind that she doesnt bother to explain herself (after all, it is a diary and Maria Teresa knows who she is talking about). The reader infers that she must be referring to Carmen.In one sense, Maria Teresas story is told via Minerva, since both diaries were gifts from her older sister. Yet, in this chapter the reader learns about many important events in Minervas life through Maria Teresas diary entries. For instance, we learn in Maria Teresas report about the speech at Salcedo Civic Hall that Minerva has gained permission to attend law school. We also learn about Minervas marriage to Manolo, the birth of Minou, and Trujillos denial of her license to p ractice law upon graduation from law school. It is important to remember that we are learning about the events primarily from one point of view. The personal, family matters are related in the diary, while the political matters are often underground enough not to make it into the diary, generally because Maria Teresa does not know much of what is going on. By late 1957, however, the personal and political spheres are merging more quickly for her again.As a narrator, Maria Teresa uses the technique of rhetorical questions, but they are influenced by the brooding nature of her diary entries. On December 31, 1953, as she looks out at the stars, she asks, What does it all mean, anyway? When Leandro spends the night on December 1, 1957, she writes, Guess whose name was in my right shoe all day? referring to the love spell Fela taught her years ago.Another characteristic of Maria Teresas narrative voice is the use of exclamations. After she kisses Berto, she exclaims, Oh horror! Oh shamelessness! Oh disgust! In July, when she eats two pieces of the cake Tia Flor cooked for her graduation party, she writes, My hips, my hips! This technique characterizes her as an emotional, dramatic woman. Even in a serious situation, such as when Minerva sobs before telling Maria Teresa that Manolo is cheating on her, Maria Teresa writes, My brave Minerva!Death seems to lurk throughout the chapter. Of course, Enrique Mirabal has actually died, and Maria Teresas recurring dream revolves around a coffin. But she also uses language that calls death to mind. The chapter opens with her statement, I feel like dying myself! When she comes back to her diary on July 3, she writes, Diary, I know you have probably thought me dead all these months. Chapter 8 Patrias children, Nelson and Noris, have grown up, and they all live in Pedritos great-grandfathers house. Eighteen years after getting married, she has spent New Years Eve at Mamas new house in Conuco, and she has fallen asleep at her own house. But she is woken up by Minerva, Manolo, Leandro, and Nelson, who report that Fidel Castro and Ernesto Che Guevara have ousted Batista in Cuba. That night, Raul Ernesto, Patrias next son, is conceived.Patria is afraid for her sisters and for her son Nelson, who is always tagging along behind his Tio Manolo and his new Tio Leandro, men of the world who had gone to the university and who impressed him more than his country father. She sends him to Santo Tomas de Aquino, a seminary in the capital, with the help ofPadre de Jesus Lopez. When Nelson begins to talk about joining the liberators, Patria goes to Padre de Jesus Lopez for help, but he tells her he, too, is lost, and cannot show her the way.Minerva and Maria Teresa both have had babies, M anolito and Jacqueline, respectively. Minerva asks Patria to take care of Manolito, explaining that she is going to be on the road a lot. But she and Manolo visit from Monte Cristi every week; they meet on Patrias and Pedritos land with many other revolutionaries. But this gives Nelson the chance to get involved when he is home from school. He reports back to her that the revolutionaries are expecting an invasion by the liberators from Cuba.Though she is pregnant with Raul Ernesto, Patria decides to go on a retreat with Padre de Jesus and the Salcedo group to Constanza. They are the Christian Cultural Group, led by four priests including Padre de Jesus and Brother Daniel. Trujillo has heard rumors of the pending invasion and has declared a state of emergency, but the retreat goes to Constanza anyway. They stay in a retreat house that resembles a nunnery, and Patria feels peaceful.On June 14, while they listen to Brother Daniel speak about the Assumption, the mountainside is bombed. The first wave of the liberating invasion is the target, and as Patria watches, one of them (who is about Noriss age) is gunned down. The Christian Cultural Group comes back down the mountain, and Patrias family meets her on the road coming into town. In the newspaper, they read that 49 men and boys died in the attack. They read six days later that the second wave of the invasion force was intercepted and also defeated.At the next meeting of the Christian Cultural Group, the mood has changed considerably: Padre de Jesus speaks like a revolutionary, and they change their name to Accion Clero-Cultural, or ACC. Their mission is to organize a powerful national underground. Patria volunteers Pedrito, Nelson, Minerva, Manolo, Maria Teresa, and Leandro for the organization. However, Pedrito becomes upset that the revolutionaries are meeting in their backyard, since a new law has been passed that will allow the government to confiscate the land of anyone found to be harboring any enemies of the regime. Patria is able to sway him when she reveals that their son Nelson is involved, too.The Fourteenth of June Movement is founded then, in Patria and Pedritos home. There are about forty people, with Manolo as president. They make bombs, called nipples, and hide weapons. Patria sends Noris to Chea Mirabals house, and they use her bedroom as an ammunitions room. Analysis As narrator, Patria uses similes and personification that connect her to both heaven and earth. When Padre de Jesus tells her he cannot help her because he, too, is lost, she says, I was shaking like when a breeze blows through the sacristy and the votive candles flicker. She is in the place of the prayerful candles, being shaken by nature. When she is overwhelmed by the beauty of Constanza, she personifies the land and nature more generally as if it is tied to God: Purple Mountains reaching towards angelfeather clouds; a falcon soaring in a calm blue sky; God combing His sunshine fingers through green pastures straight out of the Psalms.Pedrito also ties Patria to the Earth. This is evident in the language she uses to express not being worried about him like she worries about her sisters: Pedrito didnt worry me. I knew he would always have one hand in the soil and the other somewhere on me.Patria uses a style of narration that involves direct address and exclamations, characterizing herself as deliberate but also at times as emotional as her younger sister Maria Teresa. For example, when Nelson sees an excited look on her face after he tells her about the invasion, she says, But you know why that look was there? Ill tell you. Similarly, when she explains why Noris does not want to go along with her to the retreat, she says, I certainly couldnt talk her into a retreat with old ladies and a bunch of bad-breath priests. (Lord forgive her!).When Noris meets her after the mountainside is bombed, Patria notices a change in her, as if her soul had at last matured and began its cycles. This metaphor comparing the soul maturing to a menstrual cycle hearkens back to Chapter 2, in which Minerva begins her complications both physically and emotionally as she realizes the country is in danger, and the po wer and evil of Trujillo. It also is reminiscent of Maria Teresa, who in her diary entries as a young girl yearned to discover her soul.Patria also struggles to reconcile her commitment to God with her desire to protect her family and defend her country. Symbolically, she and Maria Teresa make a list of the weapons theyve assembled in the pretty script wed been taught by the nuns for writing out Bible passages. Even when the retreat house is bombed, she describes it spiritually: His Kingdom was coming down upon the very roof of that retreat house. As they ride back down the mountain after the retreat, she says, I tried looking up at our Father, but I couldnt see His Face for the dark smoke hiding the tops of those mountains.This chapter also keeps the reader informed about the larger history. We learn about the role of Cuba and its revolutionaries. We also learn about the events of June 14 and the origins, filtered through the narrator, of the Movimiento 14 de Junio.

Difference Between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews in Modern Times Essay Example for Free

Difference Between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews in Modern Times Essay For the most part, modern Jewish history deals with the political, social and economic advancements achieved by the Ashkenazi communities in Europe, America, and later Palestine. Because of its relatively small size and involvement in the affairs of civilized countries of Europe and America, the Sephardi branch of Judaism is rerely dealt with in the context of modern Jewish history. Their development is however, though not as influential upon the flow of the mainstream history as that of the Ashkenazi jewry, is nevertheless an area of interest to anyone undertaking a serious study of Jewish history. The theological difference between the two movements, the Sefardi and the Ashekenazi, lies in the traditional laws more than in written ones. Both take an Orthodoxal approach to the written law of the Torah, and the differences in its interpretation are subtle enough to be dismissed. However the traditions acquired , and at times given the power of laws, in the course of the long centuries of diaspora differ considerably from one branch of Judaism to another. Just as the worldwide language of the Ashekenazim, Yiddish, is a mixture of Hebrew with German, the common language used by the Sephardim Ladino, still in use in some parts of the world, is a dialect formed by combining Hebrew with Spanish. The Sephardim who have historically been more involved into the lives of the gentile societies where they settled dont have as strict a set of observances as do the Ashkenazis who have been contained in closed ghettos up until two centuries ago. The official doctrine of the Sephardis does not for example prohibit polygomy, whereas it hasnt been allowed in the Ashkenazi law since Middle Ages. Although the Ashkenazi traditions are somewhat stricter than those of the Sephardim, a greater percentage of Ashkenazi Jews have over the past century and a half stopped observing these traditions, becoming either secular Jews, atheists, like the American Freethinkers, or simply converting. An even greater part have chosen to follow only a part of the traditional, or oral, laws, forming widely popular Reform and Conservative movements. This phenomenon, if present within the Sephardic community exists on such a small scale that it can be discounted. The reason for this difference in the adherence of the tradition is the way in which the tradition itself was first put into effect. In the case of the Ashkenazi Jews the traditions have been instated by the long centuries of enforced separation, and when the barriers were let down, the communities that were held together by pressure from the outside started to degenerate. With the walls of the ghetto gone, but full emancipation not yet granted, many believed that if they had integrated themselves into the gentile societies, they would gain acceptance. Secular education replaced religion, rather than complementing it. This however was not the case with Sephardim, whose less strict traditions were developed in the environment of toleration. While the Ashkenazi Jews were restricted to the ghettos of Europe, held at bay by the Catholic church, the Sephardim of Middle East, North Africa and Ottoman Empire were living as dhimmies, or people of the pact, and though not fully equal with their Muslim hosts, were to some extent intregrated into their societies. For this reason, the traditional laws of the Sephardim are less demanding, but more enduring. Unlike the Ashkenazi population that has over a century of immigration spread itself all over the world, The Sephardic communities tend to concentrate mostly around a few areas. Today most of the Sephardic Jews reside within Israel, amost other Middle-Eastern communities having been reduced to virtual nonexistance by the migration of Jews out of Arabic countries after the creation of Israel. A substantial community is still maintained in Turkey, where historically Jews have received good treatment. Of the Western countries, the only one where the population of Sephardic Jews is comparable to that of the Ashekenazis is France, where a considerable number of Jews have resided since the Middle Ages. While Sephardi Jews were the first people of Jewish faith to arrive in the US, and their number in this country is still quite large, they are but a drop in the bucket when compared to the overall number of Jews currently residing in America today. The Spehardic Jews have historically lived in the areas more or less tolerant of Judaism. They therefore had more of an opportunity to integrate themselves into the host societies than did their Ashkenazi counterparts living in the countries where Jewish communities were forcebly segregated from the rest. Thus they never really formed separate self-governed units, and the impact made upon the countries of their residence can be traced only through the outstanding Jewish personalities that had effect on the history of those states, and not actions taken by the community as a whole. Whereas in the history of American Jews one may encounter occurrences of political decisions being influenced by the pressure of Jews as a communal force, the history of Middle-Eastern countries is only able to offer examples of brilliant Jewish individuals, but rarely actions taken by the whole communities. The Sephardis (the word itself comes from a Hebrew word for Spain) first came to Europe in the early middle ages across the Straight of Gibraltar to the Iberian peninsula, following the wave of muslim conquerors, into whose society they were at the time well integrated. With the slow reconquest of the peninsula by the Christians a number of the Jews stayed on the land, at times serving as middlemen in the ongoing trade between the two sides of the conflict. Prospering from such lucrative practices, the Sephardic community of the newly created Spain grew and gained economic power. With the final expulsion of the external heretics, the Spanish, devoted Catholics have turned within in their quest for the expulsion of the unfaithful, and around 1492 a decree had forced the Jews of Spain to convert or leave country. While some Jews of Spain have chosen to convert rather than face relocation and possibly relinquish their economic position, (though some of those continued practicing Judaism in secrecy) many of them have migrated to the Ottoman empire, where the Sultan Bayazid II offered them safe haven. In later years as the Ottoman rulers continued the policy of toleration, the Sephardic community of Turkey grew to considerable numbers. Other members of the Spanish Jewry migrated to nearby Portugal from where they were promptly expelled in 1496. From here, some people migrated North to France, where they were tolerated in the southern provinces, and Netherlands. Others went eastward to the Ottoman Empire and Middle East. The Sephardic community of France had maintained a realtively constant population, a fact that allowed it to exist in obscurity, and thus continue to be tolerated. The people who settled in the Netherlands, by this time a country of religious tolerance, had enjoyed for a period of time the equality unparalleled at this point anywhere in the Western world. The main flux of Sephardi immigrants took almost a century incoming to the Netherlands, finally reaching that country around 1590. When half a century later Netherlands began active trade with the South America, Jews were greatly involved because they could speak Dutch and were literate enough to keep records of the trade. They gained a great deal economically through this lucrartive practice, and it was by the way of this trade that first Sephardic Jews have arrived in the Americas. The Ottoman empire, which in its golden age spanned from North Africa to the Balcans, had attracted Jewish immigration from as early as the 1300s. The Sultans sympathy to the Jews went so far that in 1556, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent had requested from the Pope Paul IV the release of the Ancona Marranos which he declared Ottoman citizens. Over the years, Jews exiled from Hungary, France, Sicily and Bohemia came to the Ottoman empire in search of home, and they found it. A letter sent by Rabbi Yitzhak Sarfati (from Edirne) to Jewish communities in Europe invited his coreligionists to leave the torments they were enduring in Christiandom and to seek safety and prosperity in Turkey. (1) Three centuries after the expulsion of Jews from Spain, the Ottoman cities of Istanbul, Izmud, Safed and Salonica became centers of Sephardic prosperity that was compairable to the period of muslim domination of Spain. While there arent many records of Jews as a community taking historically important actions in the course of their stay in the Ottoman Empire, many individuals worthy of notice are encountered in history. The first printing press in the Empire was established in 1493 by David and Samuel ibn Nahmias, only a year after their exile from Spain. A number of Jews had been diplomats for the Sultan (one of them, Salamon ben Nathan Eskenazi had established first contact with the British Empire), court physicians and otherwise influential people. The Zionist movement was met with drastically different reactions by the two movements. Among the by now enlightened Ashkenazim, where many have come to consider their states objects of primary alligiance, the idea of a return to Palestine was met with suspicions. Some of the people were genuinely afraid that if they acted in support of a Jewish homeland, their loyalties to the countries of their residence would be questioned, and the progress made toward emancipation that had taken long centuries to achieve would be destroyed in a single blow. Among the Sephardim, the ideas of Zionism were met with much greater enthusiasm. (3) The Jews of Middle East, whose religious convictions were at that time much better preserved, had embraced the idea of return to the land of their forefathers. The traditions ran strong among them, and the young generations did not feel resentfull for being forced to obey laws that they felt were outdated. Modernization for European Jews meant catching up with the secular education studies of their hosts, this word hoever, took a totally different meaning when applied to the Jews of Middle-East and Asia, areas to which modernization came later, and which at that point were far behind the technological progress made in the countries of the West. Therefore, while the Jews of Europe had to battle for their equality in a society the education level of which was arguably supperior to that of their own, the Jews of Middle-East had to modernize together with their host nations, and sometimes even ahead of them. The speed of the progress of Middle-Eastern Jews was enhanced by their Western-European counterparts who have by this time established for themselves not only political equality, but also economic prosperity in their adopted homelands. These well-to-do Jews who have for the most part abandoned some or all of their traditions, and have justly considered themselves to be enlightened, wished to bring this enlightenment in the way of Europeanisation to the Jews living outside of the civilized world. (2) The educational institutions created by the Alliance Israelite Universelle have had such great impact on the education of the Jews of the then-decaying Ottoman Empire, that even today, a considerable part of older generation Turkish Jews think of French as their primary means of communication. In Israel the farming communities founded in the late 1800s with the funding of rich European Jewish families as a part of the project to re-settle Palestine, have now grown to become well established businesses. Currently the Israeli Jews represent the only substantial Jewish community left in the Middle East. The surrounding countries, where up until the 1940s many Jews coexisted with Muslim majorities, have over the course of the past half-century lost most of their Jewish population to immigration due to racial and ethnic tensions brought about by the Arab-Israeli conflicts. In fact, the governments of states such as Syria have after the creation of Israel considered the Jews living on their territories to be hostages in this confrontation, and have treated them accordingly. The immigrants from the Arab states being predominantly Sephardic, Israel, a once Ashekenazi dominated country, now has an about even division between the two movements. With their increasing number, the Sephardi influence is also growing in the Israeli legislature, and in the last few years a Sephardi party Shaas has gained substantial power within the Knesset, Israels governing body. The state of Israel is unique in that it is the first country in over two thousand years where Jews have been given the right of self-rule. This raises problems that the Jews in other times, and even the Jews outside of Israel today do not have to deal with. Throughout Israels brief history, a debate as to the extent to which the secular laws should follow the religious doctrine of Judaism had been an ongoing one. Such debates are naturally meaningless in the rest of the world, where the Jews are to follow the laws of the land. The different historical background of the two movements of Judaism has created a noticeable gap in their culture, their traditional laws and their adherence of those laws. It has shaped the manner of their development and the final result of it. The history itself was shaped by the environment in which the exiled Jews found themselves, and the attitude of the people who surrounded them. This attitude was in turn based around their religious doctrine. (1) Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam (2) Harvey Goldberg, Sephardi and Middle Eastern Jewries, introductoin p15 (3) Norman Stillman, Sephardi and Middle Eastern Jewries Essay 1, Middle-Eastern and North African Jewries p67 1996, Lev Epshteyn, SUNY Binghamton.

Cost Estimation and Management Strategies

Cost Estimation and Management Strategies Introduction Cost is one of the three pillars supporting project success or failure, the other two being Time and performance. Projects that go significantly over budget are often terminated without achieving the construction project goals because stakeholders simply run out of money or perceive additional expenditures as throwing good money after bad. Projects that stay within budget are the exception, not the rule. A construction project manager who can control costs while achieving performance and schedule goals should be viewed as somewhat of a hero, especially when we consider that cost, performance, and schedule are closely interrelated. The level of effort and expertise needed to perform good cost management are seldom appreciated. Too often, there is the pressure to come up with estimates within too short a period of time. When this happens, there is not enough time to gather adequate historical data, select appropriate estimating methods, consider alternatives, or carefully apply proper methods. The result is estimates that lean heavily toward guesswork. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that estimates are often not viewed as estimates but more as actual measurements made by some time traveller from the future. Estimates, once stated, have a tendency to be considered facts. Project managers must remember that estimates are the best guesses by estimators under various forms of pressure and with personal biases. They must also be aware of how others perceive these estimates. It requires an understanding of costs far beyond the concepts of money and numbers. Cost of itself can be only measured, not controlled. Costs are one-dimensional representations of three-dimensional objects travelling through a fourth dimension, time. The real-world things that cost represents are people, materials, equipment, facilities, transportation, etc. Cost is used to monitor performance or use of real things but it must be remembered that management of those real things determines cost, and not vice versa. Cost Management Cost management is the process of planning, estimating, coordination, control and reporting of all cost-related aspects from project initiation to operation and maintenance and ultimately disposal. It involves identifying all the costs associated with the investment, making informed choices about the options that will deliver best value for money and managing those costs throughout the life of the project, including disposal. Techniques such as value management help to improve value and reduce costs. Open book accounting, when shared across the whole project team, helps everyone to see the actual costs of the project. Process Description The first three cost management processes are completed, with the exception of updates, during the project planning phase. The final process, controlling costs, is ongoing throughout the remainder of the project. Each of these processes is summarized below. Resource Planning Cost management is begun by planning the resources that will be used to execute the project. Figure 6-2 shows the inputs, tools, and product of this process. All the tasks needed to achieve the project goals are identified by analyzing the deliverables described in the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). The planners use this along with historical information from previous similar projects, available resources, and activity duration estimates to develop resource requirements. It is important to get experienced people involved with this activity, as noted by the expert judgment listed under Tools. They will know what works and what doesnt work. In trying to match up resources with tasks and keep costs in line, the planners will need to look at alternatives in timing and choosing resources. They will need to refer back to project scope and organizational policies to ensure plans meet with these two guidelines. Except for very small projects, trying to plan without good project management software is tedious and subject to errors, both in forgetting to cover all tasks and in resource and cost calculations. The output of this process is a description of the resources needed, when they are needed, and for how long. This will include all types of resources, people, facilities, equipment, and materials. Once there is a resource plan, the process of estimating begins. Estimating Costs Estimating is the process of determining the expected costs of the project. It is a broad science with many branches and several popular, and sometimes disparate, methods. There are overall strategies to determining the cost of the overall project, as well as individual methods of estimating costs of specific types of activity. Several of these can be found in the resources listed at the end of the chapter. In most software development projects the majority of the cost pertains to staffing. In this case, knowledge of the pay rates (including overhead) of the people working on the project, and being able to accurately estimate the number of people needed and the time necessary to complete their work will produce a fairly accurate project cost estimate. Unfortunately, this is not as simple as it sounds. Most project estimates are derived by summing the estimates for individual project elements. Several general approaches to estimating costs for project elements are presented here. [3] Your choice of approach will depend on the time, resources, and historical project data available to you. The cost estimating process elements are shown in Figure. Figure 6-3 Cost Estimating Elements Cost estimating uses the resource requirements, resource cost rates, and the activity duration estimates to calculate cost estimates for each activity. Estimating publications, historical information, and risk information are used to help determine which strategies and methods would yield the most accurate estimates. A chart of accounts may be needed to assign costs to different accounting categories. A final, but very important, input to the estimating process is the WBS. Carefully comparing activity estimates to the activities listed in the WBS will serve as a reality check and discover tasks that may have been overlooked or forgotten. The tools used to perform the actual estimating can be one or more of several types. The major estimating approaches shown in Figure 6-3 are discussed here. While other approaches are used, they can usually be classed as variations of these. One caution that applies to all estimating approaches: If the assumptions used in developing the estimates are not correct, any conclusions based on the assumptions will not be correct either. Bottom-Up Estimating Bottom-up estimating consists of examining each individual work package or activity and estimating its costs for labour, materials, facilities, equipment, etc. This method is usually time consuming and laborious but usually results in accurate estimates if well prepared, detailed input documents are used. Analogous Estimating Analogous estimating, also known as top-down estimating, uses historical cost data from a similar project or activities to estimate the overall project cost. It is often used where information about the project is limited, especially in the early phases. Analogous estimating is less costly than other methods but it requires expert judgment and true similarity between the current and previous projects to obtain acceptable accuracy. Parametric Estimating Parametric estimating uses mathematical models, rules of thumb, or Cost Estimating Relationships (CERs) to estimate project element costs. CERs are relationships between cost and measurements of work, such as the cost per line of code. [3] Parametric estimating is usually faster and easier to perform than bottom-up methods but it is only accurate if the correct model or CER is used in the appropriate manner. Design-to-Cost Estimating Design-to-cost methods are based on cost unit goals as an input to the estimating process. Tradeoffs are made in performance and other systems design parameters to achieve lower overall system costs. A variation of this method is cost-as-the-independent-variable , where the estimators start with a fixed system-level budget and work backwards, prioritizing and selecting requirements to bring the project scope within budget constraints. Computer Tools Computer tools are used extensively to assist in cost estimation. These range from spreadsheets and project management software to specialized simulation and estimating tools. Computer tools reduce the incidence of calculation errors, speed up the estimation process, and allow consideration of multiple costing alternatives. One of the more widely used computer tools for estimating software development costs is the Constructive Cost Model (COCOMO). The software and users manual are available for download without cost (see COCOMO in the Resources.) However, please note that most computer tools for developing estimates for software development use either lines of code or function points as input data. If the number of lines of code or function points cannot be accurately estimated, the output of the tools will not be accurate. The best use of tools is to derive ranges of estimates and gain understanding of the sensitivities of those ranges to changes in various input parameters. The outputs of the estimating process include the project cost estimates, along with the details used to derive those estimates. The details usually define the tasks by references to the WBS. They also include a description of how the cost was derived, any assumptions made, and a range for estimate (e.g. $20,000 +/- $2000.) Another output of the estimating process is the Cost Management Plan. This plan describes how cost variances will be managed, and may be formal or informal. The following information may be considered for inclusion in the plan: Cost and cost-related data to be collected and analyzed. Frequency of data collection and analysis. Sources of cost-related data. Methods of analysis. Individuals and organizations involved in the process, along with their responsibilities and duties. Limits of acceptable variance between actual costs and the baseline. The authority and interaction of the cost control process with the change control process. Procedures and responsibilities for dealing with unacceptable cost variances. Cost Budgeting Once the costs have been estimated for each WBS task, and all these put together for an overall project cost, a project budget or cost baseline must be constructed. The budget is a spending plan, detailing how and at what rate the project funding will be spent. The budgeting process elements are shown in Figure 6-4. All project activities are not performed at once, resources are finite, and funding will probably be spread out over time. Cost estimates, WBS tasks, resource availability, and expected funding must all be integrated with the project schedule in a plan to apply funds to resources and tasks. Budgeting is a balancing act to ensure the rate of spending closely parallels the resource availability and funding, while not exceeding either. At the same time, task performance schedules must be followed so that all tasks are funded and completed before or by the end of the project schedule. The spending plan forms the cost baseline, which will be one of the primary measures of project health and performance. Deviations from this cost baseline are major warning signs requiring management intervention to bring the project back on track. Various tools and techniques are available to assist in the budgeting process. Most of these are implemented in some form of computer software. Budgeting is usually a major part of project management software. Cost Control Cost control is the final step of the cost management process but it continues through the end of the project. It is a major element of project success and consists of efforts to track spending and ensure it stays within the limits of the cost baseline. The following activities make up the cost control process: Monitor project spending to ensure it stays within the baseline plan for spending rates and totals. When spending varies from the plan determine the cause of variance, remembering that the variance may be a result of incorrect assumptions made when the original cost estimate was developed. Change the execution of the project to bring the spending back in line within acceptable limits, or recognize that the original estimate was incorrect, and either obtain additional funding or reduce the scope of the project. Prevent unapproved changes to the project and cost baseline. When it is not possible to maintain the current cost baseline, the cost control process expands to include these activities: Manage the process to change the baseline to allow for the new realities of the project (or incorrectly estimated original realities.) Accurately record authorized changes in the cost baseline. Inform stakeholders of changes. The cost control process compares cost performance reports with the cost baseline to detect variances. Guidance on what constitutes unacceptable variance and how to deal with variance can be found in the cost management plan, developed during the estimation activities. Few projects are completed without changes being suggested or requested. All change requests should run the gauntlet of cost control to weigh their advantages against their impact to project costs. Cost control tools include performance measurement techniques, a working cost change control system, and computer based tools. A powerful technique used with considerable success in projects is Earned Value Management , if used appropriately. It requires a fully defined project up front and bottom-up cost estimates, but it can provide accurate and reliable indication of cost performance as early as 15% into the project. The outputs of cost control include products which are ongoing throughout the life of the project: revised cost estimates, budget updates, corrective actions, and estimates of what the total project cost will be at completion. Corrective actions can involve anything that incurs cost, or even updating the cost baseline to realign with project realities or changes in scope. Cost data necessary to project closeout are also collected throughout the life of the project and summarized at the end. A final product, extremely important to future efforts, is a compilation of lessons learned during the execution of the project. Tools for analyzing/evaluating Cost Management Some construction insurance projects dont only exceed their budget because they turn out to be bigger than originally estimated. They often blow the budget because the estimates were badly managed. As a result, the profitability analyses are not well quantified because the estimates of future return were not accurate. Accurate estimates turn to be really important, as they are frequently required for three principal reasons: The first is to well-define the costs/budget of the project. The second is to justify the project. It enables the cost to be compared with the anticipated benefits. The third is to evaluate and control the actual costs vs. estimated and take corrective actions when needed to make the project succeed. Applying Activity-Based Costing (ABC) to construction projects can help insurance companies to better understand their costs and maximize construction resources. Combined with the Earned Value Management, construction projects can be tracked and controlled effectively in terms of time and budget. Activity-Based Costing (ABC) Activity Based Costing (ABC) is a method for developing cost estimates in which the project is subdivided into discrete, quantifiable activities or a work unit. The activity must be definable where productivity can be measured in units (e.g., number of samples versus man hours). After the project is broken into its activities, a cost estimate is prepared for each activity. These individual cost estimates will contain all labour, materials, equipment, and subcontracting costs, including overhead, for each activity. Each complete individual estimate is added to the others to obtain an overall estimate. Contingency and escalation can be calculated for each activity or after all the activities have been summed. ABC is a powerful tool, but it is not appropriate for all cost estimates. This chapter outlines the ABC method and discusses applicable uses of ABC. ABC methodology is used when a project can be divided into defined activities. These activities are at the lowest function level of a project at which costs are tracked and performance is evaluated. Depending on the project organization, the activity may coincide with an element of the work breakdown structure (WBS) or may combine one or more elements of the WBS. However, the activities must be defined so there is no overlap between them. After the activity is defined, the unit of work is established. All costs for the activity are estimated using the unit of work. The estimates for the units of work can be done by performing detailed estimates, using cost estimating relationships, obtaining outside quotes for equipment, etc. All costs including overhead, profit, and markups should be included in the activity cost. Earned Value Management (EVM) An interesting phenomenon exists in the construction industry. The industry probably uses parts of Earned Value management about as well as any industry. But, what makes it interesting is that in construction work, practitioners rarely use the term Earned Value. The Earned Value Management (EVM) technique is a valuable tool to measure a projects progress, forecast its completion date and final cost, and provide schedule and budget variances along the way. Earned Value management is a technique that can be applied, at least in part, to the management of all capital projects, in any industry, while employing any contracting approach. The employment of Earned Value requires a three-dimensional measurement of project performance, ideally from as early as possible—perhaps as early as 15 percent complete, up to 100 percent final completion. However, two of the three dimensions of Earned Value—the baseline plan and the physical performance measurement—will apply to all capital projects, in any industry, using any contracting method. Using Earned Value metrics, any project can accurately monitor and measure the performance of projects against a firm baseline. Using the three dimensions of Earned Value, the project management teams can at all times monitor both the cost and the schedule performance status of their projects. The Earned Value Management (EVM) technique is a valuable tool to measure a projects progress, forecast its completion date and final cost, and provide schedule and budget variances along the way. EVM provides consistent indicators to evaluate and compare projects and give an objective measurement of how much work has been accomplished. It lets the project manager combine schedule performance and cost performance to answer the question: What did we get for the money we spent? Using EVM process, management can easily compare the planned amount of work with what has actually been completed, to determine if cost, schedule, and work accomplished are progressing as planned. It forces the project manager to plan, budget and schedule the work in a time-phased plan. The principles of ABC and EVM techniques provide innovative cost and performance measurement systems, allowing productivity improvements, and therefore can enhance the projects profitability and performance. Quality Management (QM) The process of planning, organizing, implementing, monitoring, and documenting a system of management practices that coordinate and direct relevant project resources and activities to achieve quality in an efficient, reliable, and consistent manner. Quality Management Plan (QMP) A project-specific, written plan prepared for certain projects which reflects the general methodology to be implemented by the Construction Manager during the course of the project to enhance the owners control of quality through a process-oriented approach to the various management tasks for the program. The Quality Management Plan complements the Construction Management Plan (CMP) and forms a basis of understanding as to how the project team will interrelate in a manner that promotes quality in all aspects of the program, from the pre-design phase through completion of construction. Its purpose is to emphasize the quality goals of the project team in all issues associated with the work. This pertains not only to the traditional QA/QC of constructing elements of the work, but also addresses the quality needs of management tasks such as performing constructability reviews during design, checking estimates, making appropriate decisions, updating schedules, guiding the selection of sub contractors and vendors from a quality-oriented basis, to dealing with the public when applicable. Owners, for certain projects, require that a separate Quality Management Plan be prepared by the Construction Manager. In these cases, the QMP is a project-specific plan which reflects the approach of the CM towards achieving quality in the constructed project. It is developed with heavy reliance on many of the sections included in these Guidelines, and fully supports the Construction Management Plan (CMP). When a separate QMP is prepared, most of the quality-oriented issues and discussion of processes, check lists, audits, etc., are contained in the QMP rather than the CMP. The CMP then addresses the day-to-day performance of the various functions and outlines the methods by which the Construction Managers forces will perform their services. The QMP typically will include some of the following: †¢ Overall project organization †¢ Project QA/QC organization †¢ QA/QC representatives of design team and contractors †¢ Management decision flow chart †¢ Formats for various elements of the CM services (i.e., formats for job meeting minutes, progress payment applications, field observation reports, shop drawing logs, notice of proposal change order, etc.) †¢ Detailed check lists or audit plans to provide for quality in the practice of CM functions (i.e., check lists for approving contractors schedules, approving revisions to schedules, reviewing change order costs, obtaining approval within the owner organization for changes, approval to start foundation construction, approval to start concrete pour, approval to start steel erection, preliminary and final acceptance, etc.). †¢ Project Quality Audit forms The CM will prepare quality management narratives for the use of his staff for each of the check lists and quality procedures contained in the QMP to provide for an acceptable level of quality at all levels of CM practice. Inputs to Quality Planning. Quality policy . Quality is the overall intentions and direction of a construction organization with regard to quality, as formally expressed by top management. The quality policy of the performing organization can often be adopted as is for use by the project. However, if the performing organization lacks a formal quality policy, or if the project involves multiple performing organizations (as with a joint venture), then the project management team will need to develop a quality policy for the project. Regardless of the origin of the quality policy, the project management team is responsible for ensuring that the project clients are fully aware of it. Scope statement. The scope statement is a key input to quality planning since it documents major project deliverables, as well as the project objectives that serve to define important client requirements. Project description. Although objectives of the project description may be embodied in the scope statement, the project description will often contain details of technical issues and other concerns that may affect quality planning. Standards and regulations. The project management team must consider any application area-specific standards or regulations that may affect the project. Other process outputs . In addition to the scope statement and project description, processes in other knowledge areas may produce outputs that should be considered as part of quality planning. For example, procurement planning may identify contractor quality requirements that should be reflected in the overall quality management plan. Tools and Techniques for Quality Planning. Benefit/cost analysis . The quality planning process must consider benefit/cost tradeoffs. The primary benefit of meeting quality requirements is less rework, which means higher quality, lower costs, and increased client satisfaction. The primary cost of meeting quality requirements is the expense associated with project management activities. It is axiomatic of the quality management discipline that the benefits outweigh the costs. Benchmarking. Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned project practices to those of other projects to generate ideas for improvement and to provide a standard by which to measure performance. The other projects may be within the performing organization or outside of it, and may be within the same application area or in another. Flowcharting. A flow chart is any diagram that shows various elements of a system relate. Flowcharting techniques commonly used in quality management include: Cause-and-effect diagrams A cause-and-effect diagram is an analysis tool that provides a systematic way of looking at effects and the causes that create or contribute to those effects. It was develop by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa of Japan in 1943 and is sometimes referred to as an Ishikawa Diagram or a Fishbone Diagram because of its shape. Cause-and-effect diagrams, also called Ishikawa diagrams or fishbone diagrams, which illustrate how various factors might be linked to potential problems or effects. A Cause-and-Effect Diagram is a tool that helps identify, sort, and display possible causes of a specific problem or quality characteristic. It graphically illustrates the relationship between a given outcome and all the factors that influence the outcome. A Cause-and-Effect Diagram is a tool that is useful for identifying and organizing the known or possible causes of quality, or the lack of it. The structure provided by the diagram helps team members think in a very systematic way. At the head of the Fishbone is the defect or effect, stated in the form of a question. The major bones are the capstones, or main groupings of causes. The minor bones are detailed items under each capstone. Applying cause-and-effect diagram A cause-and-effect diagram is a tool that is useful for identifying and organizing the known or possible causes of quality, or the lack of it. The structure provided by the diagram helps team members think in a very systematic way. Some of the benefits of constructing a cause-and-effect diagram are that it: helps determine the root causes of a problem or quality characteristic using a structured approach; encourages group participation and utilizes group knowledge of the process; uses an orderly, easy-to-read format to diagram cause-and-effect relationships; indicates possible causes of variation in a process; increases knowledge of the process by helping everyone to learn more about the factors at work and how they relate; and identifies areas where data should be collected for further study. System or process flow charts, which show how various elements of a system, interrelate. Flow chart is used to provide a diagrammatic picture using a set of symbols. They are used to show all the steps or stages in a process project or sequence of events. A flowchart assists in documenting and describing a process so that it can be examined and improved. Analyzing the data collected on a flowchart can help to uncover irregularities and potential problem points. Flowcharts, or Process Maps, visually represent relationships among the activities and tasks that make up a process. They are typically used at the beginning of a process improvement event; you describe process events, timing, and frequencies at the highest level and work downward. At high levels, process maps help you understand process complexity. At lower levels, they help you analyze and improve the process Pareto Analysis A Pareto Chart is a series of bars whose heights reflect the frequency or impact of problems. The bars are arranged in descending order of height from left to right. This means the categories represented by the tall bars on the left are relatively more significant than those on the right. The chart gets its name from the Pareto Principle, which postulates that 80 percent of the trouble comes from 20 percent of the problems. It is a technique employed to prioritize the problems so that attention is initially focused on those, having the greatest effect. It was discovered by an Italian economist, named Vilfredo Pareto, who observed how the vast majority of wealth (80%) was owned by relatively few of the population (20%). As a generalized rule for considering solutions to problems, Pareto analysis aims to identify the critical 20% of causes and to solve them as a priority. The use Pareto Charts You can think of the benefits of using Pareto Charts in economic terms. A Pareto Chart: breaks big problem into smaller pieces; identifies most significant factors; and helps us get the most improvement with the resources available by showing where to focus efforts in order to maximize achievements. The Pareto Principle states that a small number of causes accounts for most of the problems. Focusing efforts on the vital few causes is usually a better use of valuable resources. Applying Pareto Chart A Pareto Chart is a good tool to use when the process you are investigating produces data that are broken down into categories and you can count the number of times each category occurs. No matter where you are in your process improvement efforts, Pareto Charts can be helpful, .early on to identify which problem should be studied, later to narrow down which causes of the problem to address first. Since they draw everyones attention to the vital few important factors where the payback is likely to be greatest, (they) can be used to build consensus. In general, teams should focus their attention first on the biggest problems-those with the highest bars. Making problem-solving decisions isnt the only use of the Pareto Principle. Since Pareto Charts convey information in a way that enables you to see clearly the choices that should be made, they can be used to set priorities for many practical applications in your command. S